Bridging the Digital Divide: Enhancing Digital Inclusion of Blind or Partially Sighted and Deaf or Hard of Hearing Individuals in Low- and Middle-Income Countries through Smartphones as Assistive Technology

Vicki Austin, Catherine Holloway, Dr Giulia Barbareschi, Laxmi Gunupudi, Vinicius Delgado Ramos, Satish Mishra, Maryam Bandukda, Amit Prakash

March 17, 2026

Global

Academic Research Publications

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Abstract

In this study, we developed a two-day scaffolded digital skills training intervention for mobile literacy for people who are blind or partially sighted (BPS) and deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) across three research settings: Brazil, India, and Kenya. Using an adapted Mobile Device Proficiency Questionnaire (MDPQ) administered at pre- and post-intervention, we measured the impact of the digital skills training intervention on the perceived proficiency in smartphone use. We recruited 395 participants (BPS = 208, DHH = 187), who undertook the 2-day training and used the smartphone as assistive technology (AT) for 6 months. Through post-intervention interviews, we explored the participants’ experience of the training and of using the smartphone as an AT. Our findings reveal a significant impact of digital skill training on participants’ digital literacy and self-efficacy in using smartphones as AT in everyday settings. We also discuss the need for adaptive, ability-based design approaches to improve the learning experience and digital literacy of BPS or DHH individuals in low- and middle-income countries.

Introduction

In the last decade, ownership of mobile phones and Internet access have grown rapidly worldwide [11]. A recent GSMA report on mobile and Internet connectivity [42] highlights low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) as the largest contributors of recent increases. However, research shows that people with disabilities are significantly less likely to own a mobile phone and use the Internet than people without disabilities in LMICs [13]. As a result, they are less likely to be able to benefit from the opportunities that can be accessed through the use of mobile phones and the mobile Internet. Often referred to as the “digital divide,” this gap is defined as the inequality between individuals or groups who have adequate access to, and skills to effectively use, digital technologies and those who do not, thereby limiting the latter’s opportunities to participate fully in economic, social, and citizenship activities [97]. This gap expands further due to the rapid shift toward the digital economy, disproportionately impacting people with disabilities—particularly women—who stand to benefit most from these technological advancements [29].

For people with disabilities, a smartphone is often not just a telecommunication device, but an essential multipurpose tool that can empower individuals to carry out countless activities in an accessible manner thanks to the presence of embedded digital assistive technologies (ATs) [49, 71, 77, 90]. Particularly, in LMICs, where people with disabilities tend to have fewer opportunities, such as access to inclusive education, employment, and healthcare, smartphones can facilitate participation in essential aspects of daily life [4, 8, 14, 48, 50, 55]. The WHO Global report on health equity for people with disabilities 2022 [76] states that many people with disabilities were more likely to access health information online than in person. Additionally, using digital AT such as closed captioning and audio descriptions, people who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) or blind or partially sighted (BPS) can access information online without experiencing the travel and communication barriers they often face in physical settings. Similarly, the report suggests that social media and online communities can empower people with disabilities to learn new skills, offer services, develop businesses, and exchange knowledge [76].

Despite the abundance of digital technologies and their promising potential, people with disabilities often experience several barriers to digital inclusion, mirroring the systemic barriers they face in non-digital activities [20]. Common digital inclusion barriers include: a lack of accessibility of smartphones and mobile Internet data packages, poor usability of digital devices and services, and limited availability of accessible information online [20]. Additionally, affordability of smartphones and mobile Internet is a major barrier that further limits access to digital tools and services [58, 90]. Due to the increasing costs of modern smartphones, safety is another challenge, as expensive devices are more likely to be stolen [58]. Even when people with disabilities manage to gain access to a smartphone leveraging personal finances or subsidized support, the gap in access to digital technologies is further exacerbated by a lack of appropriate and accessible training for people with disabilities to acquire the knowledge and skills to use smartphones and digital services [12, 53, 92].